|
||
|
| 2. THE WESTERN INDIAN SCHOOL (12th - 16th centuries).
The Western Indian style of painting
prevailed in the region comprising Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa. The
motivating force for the artistic activity in Western India was Jainism
just as it was Buddhism in case of the Ajanta and the Pala arts. Jainism
was patronised by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty who ruled Gujarat
and parts of Rajasthan and Malwa from 961 A.D. to the end of the 13th
century. An enormous number of Jain religious manuscripts were
commissioned from 12th to 16th centuries by the princes, their ministers
and the rich Jain merchants for earning religious merit. Many such
manuscripts are available in the Jain libraries (bhandaras) which are found at many places in Western India.
The illustrations on these manuscripts are in
a style of vigorous distortion. One finds in this style an exaggeration
of certain physical traits, eyes, breasts and hips are enlarged.
Figures are flat with angularity of features and the further eye
protruding into space. This is an art of primitive vitality vigorous
line and forceful colours. From about 1100 to 1400 A.D., palm-leaf was
used for the manuscripts and later on paper was introduced for the
purpose. TheKalpasutra and the Kalakacharya-Katha, the
two very popular Jain texts were repeatedly written and illustrated
with paintings. Some notable examples are the manuscripts of the Kalpasutra in the Devasano pado Bhandar at Ahmedabad, the Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya-Katha of about 1400 A.D. in the Prince of Wales Museum. Bombay and the Kalpasutra dated 1439 A.D. executed in Mandu, now in the National Museum, New Delhi and the Kalpasutrawritten and painted in Jaunpur in 1465 A.D.
|
|
| 3. OTHER ISOLATED STYLES (1500-1550 A.D.)
During the 15th century the Persian style of
painting started influencing the Western Indian style of painting as is
evident from the Persian facial types and hunting scenes appearing on
the border's of some of the illustrated manuscripts of the Kalpasutra.
Introduction of the use of ultramarine blue and gold colour in the
Western Indian manuscripts is also believed to be due to the influence
of the Persian painting. These Persian paintings, which came to India,
were in the form of illustrated manuscripts. A number of such
manuscripts were copied in India. Some colours used in these types of
copies can be seen in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington and an
illustrated manuscript of Bustan of Sadi in the National
Museum, New Delhi. The Bustan was executed for Sultan Nadir Shah Khilji
of Malwa (1500-1510 A.D.), by one Hajji Mahmud (painter) Shahsuwar
(scribe).
An illustrated manuscript of the Nimat Nama (Cookery
Book) which exists in the Indian Office Library, London is marked by a
new trend of painting at Malwa. The manuscript was started in the time
of Ghiyasaldin Khilji of Malwa (1469-1500 A.D.). A left of this
manuscript is illustrated here. It shows Ghiyasaldin Khilji supervising
cooking being done by maids. In the Nimat Nama style the
Persian influence is visible in the scroll like clouds, flowering trees,
grassy tufts and flowering plants in the background, female figures and
costumes. Indian elements are noticeable in some female types and their
costumes and ornaments and colours. In this manuscript one can notice
the first attempt towards the evolution of new styles of painting by the
fusion of the Persian style of Shiraz with the indigenous Indian style.
|
|
|
The finest examples of painting
belonging to the first half of the 16th century are, however,
represented by a group of miniatures generally designated as the
"Kulhadar Group". This group includes illustrations of the
'Chaurapanchasika' - "Fifty Verses of the Thief by Bilhan, the Gita Govinda, the Bhagavata Purana andRagamala. The
style of these miniatures is marked by the use of brilliant contrasting
colours, vigorous and angular drawing, transparent drapery and the
appearance of conical caps 'Kulha' on which turbans are worn by the male
figures.
An example of the Chaurapanchasika miniature
shows Champavati standing near a lotus pond. This miniature belongs to
the N.C. Mehta collection, Bombay. It was executed in the first quarter
of the 6th century, probably in Mewar. The style of the painting is
purely indigenous derived from the earlier tradition of the Westen
Indian art and does not show any influence of either the Persian or the
Mughal style of painting.
Two manuscripts of the Laur Chanda, an
Avadhi romance by Mulla Daud, one in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay
and the other in John Rylands Library, Manchester seem to have been
painted at Muslim courts between 1530 to 1540 A.D. They show a mixture
of Persian and Indian styles like the Nimat Nama of Malwa. The other two important manuscripts of this period are the Mrigavati and the Mahapurana, a Jain text. They are executed in a style related to Chaurapanchasika style.
|
| II. THE MUGHAL SCHOOL (1560-1800 A.D.)
The origin of the Mughal School of Painting
is considered to be a landmark in the history of painting in India. With
the establishment of the Mughal empire, the Mughal School of painting
originated in the reign of Akbar in 1560 A.D. Emperor Akbar was keenly
interested in the art of painting and architecture. While a boy he had
taken lessons in drawing. In the beginning of his rule an ateliar of
painting was established under the supervision of two Persian masters,
Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who were originally employed by his
father Humayun. A large number of Indian artists from all over India
were recruited to work under the Persian masters.
The Mughal style evolved as a result of a
happy synthesis of the indigenous Indian style of painting and the
Safavid school of Persian painting. The Mughal style is marked by supple
naturalism based on close observation of nature and fine and delicate
drawing. It is of an high aesthetic merit. It is primarily aristocratic
and secular.
An illustrated manuscript of the Tuti-nama in
the Cleveland Museum of Art (USA) appears to be the first work of the
Mughal School. The style of painting in this manuscript shows the Mughal
style in its formative stage. Shortly after that, between 1564-69 A.D.
was completed a very ambitious project in the form of Hamza-nama illustrations
on cloth, originally consisting of 1400 leaves in seventeen volumes.
Each leaf measured about 27"x20". The style of Hamza-nama is more developed and refined than that of the Tuti-nama.
|
|
|
The Hamza-nama illustrations
are in a private collection in Switzerland. It shows Mihrdukht shooting
arrows at the bird on a multi-staged minaret, from the upper storey of a
pavilion. In this miniature one can observe that the architecture is
Indo-Persian, the tree types are mainly derived from the Deccani
painting and female types are adapted from the earlier Rajasthani
paintings, Women are wearing four comered pointed skirts and transparent
muslim veils. Turbans worn by men are small and tight, typical of the
Akbar period.
The Mughal style was further influenced by
the European paintings which came in the Mughal court, and absorbed some
of the Westem techniques like shading and perspective.
|
The other important manuscripts illustrated during the period of Akbar are the Gulistan of Sadi dated 1567 in the British Museum, London, the Anwari-Suhavli (a
book of fables) dated 1570 in the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London, another Gulistan of Sadi in the Royal
Asiatic Society Library copied at Fatehpur Sikri in 1581 by Muhammad
Hussain al-Kashmiri, a Diwan of the poet Amir Shahi in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, of the Diwan of Hafiz, one divided between the
British Museum and the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin and the second in
the Persian section of the Chester Beatty Library, another manuscript of
the Tuti-nama in the same Library, theRazm-nama (Persian translation of the Mahabharata) in the Maharaja of Jaipur Museum, Jaipur, the Baharistan of Jami dated 1595 in the Bodleian Library, the Darab-nama in the British Museum, the Akbar-nama (circa 1600) in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, the Tarikh-i-Alfi dated 1596 A.D. in the Gulistan Library in Tehran, a number of the Babar-nama, a manuscript executed in the last decade of the 16th century, the Twarikh-e-Khandane Taimuria
in the Khuda Baksh Library, Patna, the Jog Vashisht dated 1602 in the
Chester Beatty Library, Dublin etc. Moreover, a number of paintings of
court and hunting scenes and portraits were also executed during the
period of Akbar.
|
|
|
The list of Akbar's court
painters includes a large number of names. Some of the famous painters
other than the two Persian masters already mentioned are Dasvanth,
Miskina, Nanha, Knha, Basawan, Manohar, Doulat, Mansur, Kesu, Bhim
Gujarati, Dharam Das, Madhu, Surdas, Lal, Shankar Goverdhan and Inayat.
Under Jahangir, painting acquired greater
charm, refinement and dignity. He had great fascination for nature and
took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals and flowers. Some
important manuscripts illustrated during his period are, an animal fable
book called Ayar-i-Danish, the leaves of which are in the Cowasji Jahangir collection, Bombay and the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, and the Anwar-i-sunavli, another
fable book in the British Museum, London, both executed between
1603-10, some miniatures in the Gulistan and a Diwan of Hafiz both in
the British Museum. Besides a number of durbar scenes, portraits, bird,
animal and flower studies were also executed during his period. The
famous painters of Jahangir are Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, Mansur, Bishan
Das, Manohar, Goverdhan, Balchand, Daulat, Mukhlis, Bhim and Inayat.
The portrait of Jahangir illustrated is a
typical example of miniature executed during the period of Jahangir.
This miniature is in the collection of the National Museum, New Delhi.
It shows Jahangir holding a picture of the Virgin Mary in his right
hand. The portrait is remarkable for its superb drawing and fine
modelling and realism. There is liberal use of gold colour on the
borders which are decorated with floral designs. Text in Persian appears
along the border. The portrait is assigned to 1615-20 A.D. Following
the example of the Mughal Emperor the courtiers and the provincial
officers also patronised painting. They engaged artists trained in the
Mughal technique of painting. But the artists available to them were of
inferior merit, those who could not seek employment in the Imperial
Atelier which required only first-rate artists. The works of such
painters are styled as "Popular Mughal" or 'Provincial Mughal' painting.
This style of painting has all important characteristics of the
Imperial Mughal painting but is inferior in quality. Some notable
examples of the Popular Mughal painting are a series of the Razm-nama dated
1616 A.D., a series of the Rasikapriya (1610-1615) and a series of the
Ramayana of circa 1610 A.D., in several Indian and foreign museums.
|
An example from a series of the
Ramayana of the early 17th century in the typical popular Mughal style,
from the collection of the National Museum, New Delhi. It shows a fight
between the armies of Rama and Ravana in Lanka. Rama with his brother
Lakshmana is seen in the foreground to the left while Ravana is seen in
his court conversing with the demon chiefs inside the golden fort. The
drawing is fine but not as refined as observed in the Imperial Mughal
painting. The human facial type, demons, the tree types and the
treatment of rocks are all in the Mughal manner. The miniature is marked
by the spirit of action and dramatic movement created in the fighting
scene.
Under Shah Jahan the Mughal painting
maintained its fine quality. But the style, however, became over-ripe
during the later period of his rule. Portraiture was given considerable
attention by his painters. The well-known artists of his period are
Bichiter, Chaitaraman, Anup Chattar, Mohammed Nadir of Samarquand,
Inayat and Makr. Apart from portraiture, other paintings showing groups
of ascetics and mystics and a number of illustrated manuscripts were
also executed during his period. Some noteworthy examples of such
manuscripts are the Gulistan and the Bustan of Sadi, copied for the emperor in the first and second years of his reign and the Shah Jahan Nama 1657, at Windsor Castle.
A miniature in the collection of the National Museum depicts a gathering of Sufis (Muslim
divines) who are seen seated in an open space and engaged in
discussion. It displays supple naturalism of the Mughal style of the
Shah Jahan period. The drawing is refined and the colours have subdued
tones. The background is green and the sky is in golden colour. The
borders show floral designs in golden colour. The miniature is assigned
to circa 1650 A.D. |
|
| Aurangzeb was a puritan and therefore did not
encourage art. Painting declined during his period and lost much of its
earlier quality. A large number of court painters migrated to the
provincial courts.
During the period of Bahadur Shah, there was a
revival of the Mughal painting after the neglect shown by Aurangzeb.
The style shows an improvement in quality.
After 1712 A.D. the Mughal painting again
started deteriorating under the later Mughals. Though retaining the
outer form it became lifeless and lost inherent quality of the earlier
Mughal art.
|
| III.. THE DECCANI SCHOOLS (CIRCA 1560-1800 A.D.)
Though no pre-Mughal painting from the Deccan
are so far known to exist, yet it can safely be presumed that
sophisticated schools of painting flourished there, making a significant
contribution to the development of the Mughal style in North India.
Early centres of painting in the Deccan, during the 16th and 17th
centuries were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. In the Deccan, painting
continued to develop independently of the Mughal style in the
beginning. However, later in the 17th and 18th centuries it was
increasingly influenced by the Mughal style.
1. AHMEDNAGAR
The earliest examples of the Ahmednagar
painting are contained in a volume of poems written in praise of Hussain
Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar (1553-1565) and his queen. This manuscript
known as the 'Tarif-in-Hussain Shahi and assigned to a period
1565-69 is preserved in the Bharat ltihas Samshodaka Mandala, Poona. One
of the illustrations depicts the king sitting on the throne and
attended by a number of women. The female type appearing in the painting
belongs to the northern tradition of Malwa. The Choli (bodice)
and long pigtails braided and ending in a tassel are the northern
costume. But the long scarf passing round the body is in the southern
fashion. The colours used in the painting being rich and brilliant are
different from those used in the northern paintings. The Persian
influence can be seen in the high horizon, gold sky and the landscape.
Some other fine examples of the Ahmednagar
painting are the "Hindola Raga" of about 1590 A.D. and portraits of
Burhan Nizam Shah II of Ahmednagar (1591-96 A.D.) and of Malik Amber of
about 1605 A.D. existing in the National Museum, New Delhi and other
museums.
|
|
|
2. BIJAPUR
In Bijapur, painting was patronised by Ali
Adil Shah I (1558-80 A.D.) and his successor Ibrahim II (1580-1627
A.D.). An encyclopaedia known as the Najum-al-ulum (Stars of
Sciences), preserved in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, was
illustrated in 1570 A.D. in the reign of Ali Adil Shah I. This
manuscript contains 876 miniatures. The ladies appearing in the
illustrations are tall and slender and are wearing the South Indian
dress. One of the miniatures illustrated here shows the "Throne of
Prosperity". There is influence of the Lepakshi mural painting on the
female types. The rich colour scheme, the palm trees, animals and men
and women all belong, to the Deccani tradition. The profuse use of gold
colour, some flowering plants and arabesques on the top of the throne
are derived from the Persian tradition.
Ibrahim II (1580-1627 A.D.) was a musician and author of a book, the Naurasnama., on
the subject. It is believed that a number of the Ragamala paintings
were commissioned in various museums and private collections. A few
contemporary portraits of Ibrahim II are also available in several
museums.
|
| 3. GOLCONDA
The earliest paintings identified as Golconda
work are a group of five charming paintings of about 1590 A.D. in the
British Museum, London, painted in the period of Muhammad Quli Quta Shah
(1580-1611) Golconda. They show dancing girls entertaining the company.
One of the miniatures illustrated shows the king in his court watching a
dance performance. He wears the white muslim coat with embroidered
vertical band, a typical costume associated with the Golconda court.
Gold colour has been lavishly used in painting the architecture,
costume, jewellery and vessels etc.
Other outstanding examples of the Golconda
painting are "Lady with the Myna bird", about 1605 A.D. in the Chester
Beatty Library, Dublin, an illustrated manuscript of a Sufi poem
(1605-15 A.D.) in the British Museum, London and a couple of portraits
showing a poet in a garden and an elegantly dressed young man seated on a
golden stool and reading a book, both signed by a certain artist
Muhammad Ali in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
Early Deccani painting absorbed influences of
the northern tradition of the pre-Mughal painting which was flourishing
in Malwa, and of the southern tradition of the Vijayanagar murals as
evident in the treatment of female types and costumes. Influence of the
Persian painting is also observed in the treatment of the horizon gold
sky and landscape. The colours are rich and brilliant and are different
from those of the northern painting. Tradition of the early Deccani
painting continued long after the extinction of the Deccan Sultanates of
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.
|
|
|
4. HYDERABAD
Painting in Hyderabad started with the
foundation of the Asafjhi dynasty by Mir Qamruddin Khan (Chin Qulick
Khan) Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1724 A.D. Influence of the Mughal style of
painting on the already existing early styles of Deccani paintings,
introduced by several Mughal painters who migrated to the Deccan during
the period of Aurangzeb and sought patronage there, was responsible for
the development of various styles of painting in the Deccan at Hyderabad
and other centres. Distinctive features of the Deccani paintings of the
18th and 19th centuries are observed in the treatment of the ethnic
types, costumes, jewellery, flora, fauna, landscape and colours.
A miniature showing a princess in the company
of maids is a typical example of the Hyderabad school of painting. The
princess is reclining on richly furnished terrace covered with a canopy.
The style of the painting is decorative. Typical characteristics of the
Hyderabad painting like the rich colours, the Deccani facial types and
costumes can be observed in the miniature. It belongs to the third
quarter of the 18th century.
|
| 5. TANJORE
A style of painting characterised by bold
drawing, techniques of shading and the use of pure and brilliant colours
flourished at Tanjore in South India during the late 18th and 19th
centuries.
A typical example of the Tanjore painting, in
the collection of the National Museum, is an illustrated wooden panel
of early 19th century showing the coronation of Rama. The scene is laid
under elaborately decorated arches. In the middle Rama and Sita are
seated on the throne, attended by his brothers and a lady; In the left
and right panels are seen rishis, courtiers and princes. In the foreground are Hanuman, Sugriva who is being honoured and two other vanaras opening
a box probably containing gifts. The style is decorative and is marked
by the use of bright colours and ornamental details. The conical crown
appearing in the miniature is a typical feature of the Tanjore painting.
|
|
|
IV. THE CENTRAL INDIAN AND RAJASTHANI SCHOOLS (17TH-19TH CENTURIES)
Unlike Mughal painting which is primarily
secular, the art of painting in Central India, Rajasthani and the Pahari
region etc. is deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking
inspiration from Indian epics, religious texts like the Puranas, love
poems in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folk-lore and works
on musical themes. The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Sakti exercised
tremendous influence on the pictorial art of these places. Among these
the cult of Krishna was the most popular one which inspired the patrons
and artists. The themes from theRamayana., the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Siva Purana, the Naishadacarita, the Usha Aniruddha, the GitaGovinda of Jayadeva, the Rasamanjari of Bhanudatta, the Amaru Sataka, the Rasikapriya of Kesavadasa, the Bihari Satasayee and the Ragamala etc.,
provided a very rich field to the painter who with his artistic skill
and devotion made a significant contribution to the development of
Indian painting.
|
In the 16th century there
already existed in Central India and Rajasthan the primitive art
traditions in the form of the 'Western Indian' and the
'Chaurapanchasika' styles which served as a base for the origin and
growth of various schools of painting during the 17th century. Peaceful
conditions prevailed in Rajasthan in the later half of the 16th and the
17th centuries. The Rajput rulers had gradually accepted the Mughal
supremacy and many among them occupied important positions in the Mughal
court. Some of the rulers also entered into matrimonial alliances with
the Mughals. The Rajput rulers following the example set by the Mughal
Emperors employed artists to work at their courts. Some of the Mughal
artists of inferior merit who were no longer required by the Mughal
Emperors, migrated to Rajasthan and other places and found employment at
the local courts. It is believed that the popular version of the Mughal
style which these painters carried to various places influenced the
already existing styles of paintings there with the consequence that a
number of new schools of painting originated in Rajasthan and Central
India in the 17th and 18th centuries. Among these the important schools
of paintings are Malwa, Mewar, Bundi- Kotah, AmberJaipur, Bikaner,
Marwar and Kishengarh.
The Rajasthani style of painting including
that of Malwa, is marked by bold drawing, strong and contrasting
colours. The treatment of figures is flat without any attempt to show
perspective in a naturalistic manner. Sometimes the surface of the
painting is divided into several compartments of different colours in
order to separate one scene from another. Mughal influence is seen in
the refining of drawing and some element of naturalism introduced in
figures and trees. Each school of painting has its distinct facial type,
costume, landscape and colour scheme.
|
|
|
1. MALWA
Some of the important paintings executed in the Malwa style are a series of the Rasikapriya dated 1634 A.D., a series of the Amaru Sataka painted in 1652 A.D. at a place called Nasratgarh and a series of theRagamala painted
in 1680 A.D. by an artist named Madhau Das, at Narsyanga Shah, some of
them available in the National Museum, New Delhi, another Amaru-Sataka of the same period in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay and a Ragamala series
of about 1650 A.D. in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras. The art of
painting in Malwa continued till the end of the 17th century A.D.
An example from a series of the Ragamala of 1680 A.D. represents the Megha Raga. The miniature shows the blue-complexioned Raga dancing
with a lady to the accompaniment of music played by three female
musicians. The scene is laid against a blue background. The sky is
overcast with dark clouds with a streak of lightening and rain is
indicated by white dotted lines. Four swans flying in a row, against a
dark background of clouds, enhance the pictorial effect to the
miniature. The text is written in Nagari on the top. The typical
characteristics of the painting are the use of contrasting colours,
refinement of drawing due to the influence of the Mughal painting and
ornaments and costumes consisting of black tassels and striped skirts.
|
| 2. MEWAR
The earliest example of Mewar painting is a series of the Ragamala painted
in 1605 A.D. at Chawand, a small place near Udaipur, by Misardi. Most
of the paintings of this series are in the collection of shri Gopi
Krishna Kanoria. Another important series of the Ragamala was
painted by Sahibdin in 1628 A.D. Some paintings of this series which
previously belonged to the Khajanchi collection, are now in the National
Museum, New Delhi. Other examples of the Mewar painting are the
illustration to the third book (Aranya Kanda) of the Ramayana dated 1651 A.D., in the Saraswati Bhandar, Udaipur, the seventh book (Uttara Kanda) of
the Ramayana dated 1653 A.D. in the British Museum, London and a series
of the Ragamala miniature of almost the same period in the National
Museum, New Delhi.An example from the Ragamala series painted by Sahibdin in 1628 A.D. which is now in the National Museum, is the miniature that shows the Lalita Ragini.. The
heroine is lying on a bed with her eyes closed under a painted pavilion
with a door, while a maid presses her feet. Outside, the hero is seen
carrying a garland in either hand. In the foreground is a caparisoned
horse with a groom sitting near the steps of the pavilion. The drawing
is bold and the colours are bright and contrasting. The text of the
painting is written in black on the top against the yellow ground.
|
|
|
3. BUNDI
The Bundi style of painting is very close to
the Mewar style, but the former excels the latter in quality. Painting
in Bundi started as early as circa 1625 A.D. A painting showing Bhairavi
Ragini, in the Allahabad Museum is one of the earliest examples of
Bundi painting. Some examples are, an illustrated manuscript of the Bhagawata. Purana in the Kotah Museum and a series of the Rasikapriya in the National Museum, New Delhi.
A series of the Rasikapriya of the late 17th century, has a scene which represents Krishna trying to collect butter from a Gopi, but
finding that the pot contains a piece of cloth and some other objects
and no butter he rea1ises that he has been duped by the Gopi. In
the background are trees and in the foreground is a river indicated
with wavy lines. In the river are seen flowers and a pair of acquatic
birds. The painting has a border in brilliant red colour. The peculiar
characteristics of the Bundi painting, as evident in this miniature, are
the rich and glowing colours, the rising sun in golden colour,
crimson-red horizon, overlapping and semi-naturalistic trees. The Mughal
influence is visible in the refined drawing of the faces and an element
of naturalism in the treatment of the trees. The text is written in
black against yellow background on the top.
|
| 4. KOTAH
A style of painting very much akin to the
Bundi style also prevailed in Kotah a place near Bundi, during the late
18th and 19th centuries. Themes of tiger and bear hunt were very popular
at Kotah. In Kotah paintings, most of the space is occupied by the
hilly jungle which has been rendered with a unique charm.
|
|
|
5. AMBER - JAIPUR
The State of Amber had the closest relations
with the Mughal Emperors. It is generally believed that a school of
painting originated at Amber, the old capital of the Amber State, in
early 17th century. Later on in the 18th century, the centre of artistic
activity shifted to Jaipur, the new capital. There is a fairly large
number of portraits of the Jaipur rulers and miniatures on other
subjects which can definitely be assigned to the Jaipur School.
|
|
6. MARWAR
One of the earliest examples of painting in Marwar is a series of the Ragamala in
the collection of Kumar Sangram Singh, painted by an artist named Virji
in 1623 A.D. at Pali in Marwar. The miniatures are executed in a
primitive and vigorous folk style and are completely uninfluenced by the
Mughal style. .
A large number of miniatures comprising
portraits, court scenes, series of the Ragamala and the Baramasa, etc.
were executed from the 17th to 19th centuries at several centres of
painting like Pali, Jodhpur and Nagour etc. in Marwar.
|
| 7. BIKANER
Bikaner was one of the States which had close
relations with the Mughals. Some of the Mughal artists during the later
half of the 17th century were given patronage by the Bikaner court and
were responsible for the introduction of a new style of painting having
much similarity with the Mughal and the Deccani styles. One important
artist Ali Raza "the Ustad (master) of Delhi", was employed by Raja
Karan Singh of Bikaner in about 1650 A.D. Some other noteworthy artists
who worked at the Bikaner court were Ruknuddin and his son Shahadin.
|
|
|
8. KISHENGARH
During the second quarter of the 18th
century, there developed the most charming school of Rajasthani painting
in Kishengarh under the patronage of Raja Savant Singh (1748-1757 A.D.)
who wrote devotional poetry in praise of Krishna, under the assumed
name of Nagari Das. Unfortunately only a small number of Kishengarh
miniatures are available. Most of them are believed to have been done by
the master painter Nihal Chand who, in his works, has been able to
create visual images of his master's lyrical compositions. The artist
has executed types of human figures, delicately drawn, with slender
bodies and uptilted eyes.
A beautiful miniature of the Kishengarh
School, from the National Museum collection is illustrated here. It
portrays a lovely pastoral scene of the return of Krishna with gopas and
cows to Gokula in the evening. The painting is marked by delicate
drawing, fine modelling of the human figures and cows and the broad
vista of landscape showing a stream, rows of overlapping trees, and
architecture. The artist has displayed a masterly skill in the grouping
of many figures in the miniature. The painting has a golden inner
border. It is ascribed to the middle of the 18th century and may be the
work of Nihal Chand the famous artist of Kishengarh.
|
| V. THE PAHARI SCHOOLS (17TH TO 19TH CENTURIES)
The Pahari region comprises the present State
of Himachal Pradesh, some adjoining areas of the Punjab, the area of
Jammu in the Jammu and Kashmir State and Garhwal in Uttar Pradesh. The
whole of this area was divided into small States ruled by the Rajput
princes and were often engaged in welfare. These States were centres of
great artistic activity from the latter half of the
17th to nearly the middle of the 19th century.
1. BASOHLI
The earliest centre of painting in the Pahari
region was Basohli where under the patronage of Raja Kripal Pal, an
artist named Devidasa executed miniatures in the form of the Rasamanjari illustrations in 1694 A.D. There is one more series of the Rasamanjari miniatures
painted in the same style and almost of the same period but appears to
be in a different hand. The illustrations of the two Rasamanjari series
are scattered in a number of Indian and foreign museums. The Basohli
style of painting is characterised by vigorous and bold line and strong
glowing colours. The Basohli style spread to the various neighbouring
states and continued till the middle of the 18th century.
An illustration from a series of Gita Govinda
painted by artist Manaku in 1730 A.D. shows further development of the
Basohli style. The miniature which is in the collection of the National
Museum, depicts Krishna in the company of gopis in a grove on the bank
of a river.
There is a change in the facial type which
becomes a little heavier and also in the tree forms which assume a
somewhat naturalistic character, which may be due to the influence of
the Mughal painting. Otherwise, the general features of the Basohli
style like the use of strong and contrasting colours, monochrome
background, large eyes, bold drawing, use of beetles wings for showing
diamonds in ornaments, narrow sky and the red border are observable in
this miniature also.
|
|
|
2. GULER
The last phase of the Basohli style was
closely followed by the Jammu group. of paintings mainly consisting of
portraits of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota (a small place near Jammu) by
Nainsukh, an artist who originally belonged to Guler but had settled at
Jasrota. He worked both at Jasrota and at Guler. These paintings are in
a new naturalistic and delicate style marking a change from the earlier
traditions of the Basohli art. The colours used are soft and cool. The
style appears to have been inspired by the naturalistic style of the
Mughal painting of the Muhammad Shah period.
At Guler, another State in the Pahari region,
a number of portraits of Raja Goverdhan Chand of Guler were executed in
circa 1750 A.D. in a style having close affinity with the portraits of
Balwant Singh of Jasrota. They are drawn delicately and have a bright
and rich palette.
The finest group of miniatures done in the Pahari region is represented by the famous series of the Bhagavata, the Gita Govinda, the Bihari Satasai, the Baramasa and
the Ragamala, painted in 1760-70 A.D. The exact place of origin of
these series of painting is not known. They might have been painted
either at Guler or Kangra or any other nearby centre. The Guler
portraits together with the Bhagavata and the other series have been
grouped under a common title of "Guler Style" on the basis of the style
of the Guler portraits. The style of these paintings is naturalistic,
delicate and lyrical. The female type in these paintings is particularly
delicate with well-modelled faces, small and slightly upturned nose and
the hair done minutely. It is very likely that these paintings are in
the hand of the master-artist Nainsukh himself or by one of his
competent associates.
|
| 3. KANGRA
The Guler style was followed by another style
of painting termed as the "Kangra style", representing the third phase
of the Pahari painting in the last quarter of the 18th century. The
Kangra style developed out of the Guler style. It possesses the main
characteristics of the latter style, like the delicacy of drawing and
quality of naturalism. The name Kangra style is given to this group of
painting for the reason that they are identical in style to the
portraits of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra. In these paintings, the faces
of women in profile have the nose almost in line with the forehead, the
eyes are long and narrow and the chin is sharp. There is, however, no
modelling of figures and hair is treated as a flat mass. The Kangra
style continued to flourish at various places namely Kangra, GuIer,
Basohli, Chamba, Jammu, Nurpur and Garhwal etc. Paintings of the Kangra
style are attributed mainly to the Nainsukh family. Some of the Pahari
painters found patronage in the Punjab under Maharaja Ranjit Singh and
the Sikh nobility in the beginning of the 19th century and executed
portraits and other miniatures in a modified version of the Kangra style
which continued till the middle of the 19th century.
|
|
|
4. KULU - MANDl
Along with the naturalistic Kangra style in
the Pahari region, there also flourished a folk style of painting in the
Kulu-Mandi area, mainly inspired by the local tradition. The style is
marked by bold drawing and the use of dark and dull colours. Though
influence of the Kangra style is observed in certain cases yet the style
maintains its distinct folkish character. A large number of portraits
of the Kulu and Mandi rulers and miniatures on other themes are
available in this style.
A miniature from the series of the Bhagavata in
the collection of the National Museum was painted by Shri Bhagwan in
1794 A.D. Illustrations show Krishna lifting the Goverdhana mountain on
his little finger to save the people of Gokula from the wrath of Indra
who has let loose heavy rains. The dark clouds and rain in the form of
white dotted lines are shown in the background. The drawing of figures
is bold though rather stiff. The painting has a yellow floral border.
Another example of the Kulu painting is of
two girls flying kites. The miniature is in the folk style of the late
18th century and is marked by bold drawing and dark and dull colour
scheme. The background colour is dull blue. The girls are wearing the
typical costumes and ornaments which prevailed in the Kulu region in
that period. Two flying parrots indicate sky in a symbolic manner. The
miniature belongs to the collection of the National Museum.
|
| VI. ORISSA
The earliest surviving examples of miniature
painting in Orissa appear to belong to the 17th century A.D. Some good
examples of the paintings of this period are a court scene and four
illustrated leaves of a manuscript of the Gita Govinda in the Asutosh Museum, Calcutta and an illutrated palmleaf manuscript of the Ramayana in the National Museum.. An illustrated palm-leaf manuscript of the Bhagavata in
the Asutosh Museum and a paper manuscript of the Gita Govinda in the
National Museum are examples of the 18th century Orissa painting. In
Orissa, palm-leaf continued to be used even upto the 19th century. The
outline drawing was rendered with a stylus on the palm-leaf and then
charcoal or ink was rubbed on the drawing. A few colours were sparingly
used to fill in the designs. The technique of painting on paper was,
however, different and was like the one used in other schools of
painting. The early manuscripts display a neatness in drawing. Later on
in the 18th century the line becomes bold and a little crude but the
style in general is very decorative and ornamental.
An illustration from a series of the Gita Govinda of
circa 1800 A.D. in the collection of the National Museum depicts
Krishna and Radha. They stand face to face under the dropping branches
of a slender tree, against a red background. The style is very
decorative and is marked by bold drawing, stylisation of the tree, heavy
ornamentation of figures and use of rich colour schemes. The Sanskrit
text is given on the top.
|
|
| TECHNIQUE
Paintings were executed in the traditional
tempera technique. After mixing colours in water along with a binding
medium they were applied on the drawing. First, the sketch was freely
drawn in red or black over which a white priming was given. The surface
was thoroughly burnished till the outline showed clearly through it.
Then a second outline was drawn with a fine brush. First the background
was coloured and then the sky, buildings and trees, etc. Figures were
painted last of all after which a final outline was drawn. When copies
were made from perforated sketches by rubbing- charcoal powder, the
dotted outline took the place of the first drawing. Colours used in
paintings were obtained from minerals and ochres. Indigo was the
vegetable colour. Lac-dye and red carmine were obtained from insects.
Burnt conch shell and zinc white(safeda) were used as white colour. Lamp black and burnt ivory (Kajal) were used as black colour. Red ochre (geru), red lead (sindhura), lac-dye and red carmine were used as red colour, indigo and ultramarine were used for blue. Yellow ochre, orpiment and peori (extracted
from urine of cows fed on mango-leaves) were used for yellow. Silver
and gold were also used. Terraverte, malachite and verdigriz (Zangal) were used as green colour which was also obtained by mixing other colours. Gum arabic and neem gum
were used as binding media in colours. Brushes were made of animal's
hair. Fine brushes were made from squirrel's hair, the finest being of a
single hair. Apart from palm leaf and paper, wood and cloth were also
often used as materials for painting.
The traditional Indian painting started
deteriorating after the first half of the 18th century and by the end of
the century it lost most of its vitality and charm. However, in the
Pahari region the art of painting maintained its quality till the end of
the first quarter of the 19th century. Under the impact of the Western
colours and technique of painting the traditional styles of Indian
painting finally died out in the second half of the 19th century.
|
|
||||||
|
||||||
The subject matter
of these paintings is almost exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative
patterns on the ceilings and the pillars. They are mostly associated
with the Jatakas, collection of stories, recording the previous births
of the Lord Buddha. The compositions of these paintings are large in
extent but the majority of the figures are smaller than life size.
Principal characters in most of the designs are in heroic proportions.
Centrality is one of the main features of the
composition so that attention is at once drawn to the most important
person in each scene. The contours of Ajanta figures are superb and
reveal a keen perception of beauty and form. There is no undue striving
after anatomical exactitude, for the drawing is spontaneous and
unrestrained. The painters of Ajanta had realised the true glory of the
Buddha, the story of whose life was employed here by them as a motif to
explain the eternal pattern of human life. The stories illustrated here
are continuous and elaborate presenting the drama of Ancient India
enacted in the palaces of the Kings and in the hamlets of the common
people equally engaged in the quest for the beautiful and spiritual
values of life.
|
|
The earliest paintings at
Ajanta are in cave No. IX and X of which the only surviving one is a
group on the left wall of cave X. This portrays a king with attendants
in front of a tree decked with flags. The King has come to the sacred
Bodhi tree for fulfilling some vow connected with the prince who is
attending close to the king. This painting, though a fragmentary one
shows a well developed art both in composition and execution which must
have taken many centuries to reach this stage of maturity. There is a
close resemblance in the representation of human figures with regard to
their dress, ornaments and ethnical features between this painting and
the sculptures of Amaravati and Karle of early Satavahana rules of circa
2nd century B.C.
Another surviving painting at Ajanta, the
enormously long continuous composition of Shaddanta Jataka along the
right wall of the same cave (cave No.X) belonging to circa 1st century
A.D. is one of the most beautiful but unfortunately one of the worst
damaged and can only be appreciated at the site.
|
| We have little evidence of
paintings of the next two to three centuries though it is certain that a
good amount must have once existed. The next surviving and the most
important series of Ajanta paintings are in cave No.XVI, XVII, II and I
executed between the 5th and 7th century A.D.
A beautiful example of this period is the
painting which illustrates a scene of Jataka and commonly called 'the
dying princess' in cave No.XVI painted in the early part of the 5th
century A.D. The story tells how Nanda who was passionately in love with
this girl was tricked away from her by the Buddha and carried up to
heaven. Overwhelmed by the beauty of the Apsaras, Nanda forgot his
earthly love and consented to enter the Buddhist order as a shortcut to
heaven. In time, he came to see the vanity of his purely physical aim
and became a Buddhist but the Princess, his beloved, was cruelly left to
her fate without any such consolation. 'It is one of the most
remarkable paintings of Ajanta as the movement of the line is sure and
firm. This adaptation of line is the chief character of all oriental
paintings and one of the greatest achievements of the Ajanta artists.
Emotion and pathos are expressed here by the controlled turn and poise
of the body and the eloquent gestures of the hands.
|
There are flying apsaras in the
cave No. X belonging to the late 6th century A.D. The rich
ornamentation which was the characteristic of the period is beautifully
portrayed in her turban decked with pearls and flowers. The backward
movement of the necklace suggests the flight of the apsara which is painted in a masterly way.
The later paintings at Ajanta by far the
larger part of what survives was done between the mid 6th and 7th
century A.D. and are in cave No.II and I. They also illustrate the
Jataka stories with greater details and ornamental designs.
The scenes of Mahajanaka Jataka in cave No.1 are the best surviving examples of Ajanta paintings belonging to this period.
In a scene Prince Mahajanaka - the future
Buddha, discusses the problems of the kingdom with his mother, the queen
who is shown in an extremely graceful pose and is surrounded by maids. A
few of them with fly whisks are seen standing behind the king. In their
discourse, the Prince probably is seeking his mother's advice before
beginning his march to reconquer his kingdom which has been usurped by
his uncle.
|
| A detailed scene of the Prince shows the
graceful gesture of his right hand. The next scene of the story
represents the journey of the prince on a horse back with all his
retinue. The firm determination is beautifully suggested by his highly
spirited horse while the prince himself is shown as a true embodiment of
tenderness as if melting in Karuna (kindness). These three maids belong
to the royal house. One is wearing a white robe with a beautiful
ornamental design of ducks. The Prince arriving in his uncle's capital discovers that his uncle had just died and had designated as his successor the person who would win the hand of his daughter, Sivali. The latter fell in love with the Prince and the omens destined him to occupy the throne. He was, therefore, enthroned and a great rejoicing followed.
The consecration ceremony scene where the
Prince is shown being bathed by two jars over his head. On the left side
of the scene, a maid with a toilet tray is approaching the canopy. This
shows the royal harem where king Mahajanaka is sitting majestically
while queen Sivali is beaming gracefully towards her beloved. They are
enjoying dance and music.
|
The next scene portrays a
sumptuously dressed girl dancer wearing a beautiful diadem, her hair is
adorned with flowers and she is dancing to the accompaniment of an
orchestra. On the left, two women are playing the flute and on the right
are several women musicians with various instruments including two
drums and cymbals. The dancer and the musicians have been invited by
queen Sivali to please and divert the king and to dissuade him from
renouncing the world. The king, however, decided to live an austere life
on the roof of his palace and he goes to hear the sermon of a hermit
who will strengthen him in his resolution. His journey on an elephant's
back is a representation of a royal procession just passing through the
royal gateway. The last scene of the story depicts a courtyard of a
hermitage where the king is listening to the discourses of the hermit.
The painting of Bodhisatva Padmapani from
cave I is one of the masterpieces of Ajanta Painting executed in the
late 6th century A.D. In princely fashion he is wearing a crown adorned
with sapphires, his long black hair falling gracefully. This beautifully
ornamented figure is more than life size and is shown stopping slightly
and holding in his right hand a lotus flower. In the words of one of
the contemporary art critics: "It is in its expression of sorrow, in its
feeling of profound pity, that this great art excels; and in studying
it, we would realize that we are face to face with a noble being under
the weight of a tragic decision, the bitterness of renouncing forever a
life of bliss is blended with yearning, sense of hope in the happiness
of the future". The strong direct drawing of the shoulder and arms is
masterly in its unaffected simplicity. The eyebrows upon which depends
much of the facial expression are drawn by simple lines. The way of
holding the lotus 'and the gestures of the hand, as shown here, is the
greatest achievement of the Ajanta artists.
|
|
|
The representation of one of
the memorable events of Buddha's life after enlightenment and which
ranks among the best of the paintings at Ajanta, is in cave No.XVII
painted probably in circa 6th century A.D. This represents Buddha's
visit to the door of Yashodhara's abode in the city of Kapilavastu while
she herself has come out with her son Rahula to meet the Great King.
The artist had drawn the figure of the Buddha on a large scale,
apparently to indicate his spiritual greatness as compared with ordinary
beings for instance the representation of Yashodhara and Rahula looks
very small by comparison. The head of Buddha is significantly inclined
towards Yashodhara, showing compassion and love. The features of the
face are obliterated but the eyes are clear and the meditative gaze
suggests an absorption of mind in the spiritual. There is a halo around
the Great King's head and above it, a Vidhyaduri is holding an umbrella
as a symbol of his sovereignty over the earth and heaven.
Below, by the side of the door the figures of
Yashodhara and Rahula are painted, the latter looking up towards his
father with affection mixed with astonishment since he was only seven
days old when Gautama renounced the world. Yashodhara has been shown
with all charm of natural beauty and outward adornments of costume and
jewellery but far more striking is the appealing manner in which she is
looking towards Buddha, more with a feeling of love than reverence. The
rhythmic treatment ,of the different parts of her body, the graceful
pose and the fine brush work shown in the curls above her temples and in
the locks spread over her shoulders all portray an art of an high order
and makes this painting one of the finest portrayals of feminine
elegance and beauty.
|
A beautiful depiction of a
feminine beauty as conceived by an Ajanta artist is apparently
recognized as Maya Devi, the mother of the Buddha whose beauty the
artist wanted to delineate without the restriction imposed by the
incident of any story. The princess is depicted with all bodily charm
which the painter had skilfully exhibited. The painter has chosen a
standing pose for the princess and to add naturalness and grace he has
made her lean against a pillar so that the beauty of her slender and
slim limbs may be best appreciated. By an inclination of her head the
artist has shown very cleverly the charm of the dark coils of her hair
adorned with flowers.
Along-side these Buddhist paintings there are also a few Brahmanical figures of iconographic interest.
Indra, a Hindu divinity, is depicted flying
amid clouds together with celestial nymphs holding musical instruments.
Indra is wearing a royal crown, pearl necklaces and in his girdle a
sword and a dagger. The speed of his flight is suggested by the backward
movement of pearl necklaces. This is from cave No.XVII and belongs to
circa 6th century A.D.
Besides these religious paintings there are decorative
designs on ceilings and pillars of these cave temples. Unlike the epics
and continuous Jataka paintings there are complete designs within their
squares. The whole flora and fauna in and around the artists world are
faithfully portrayed but never do we find any repetition of form and
colour. The artists of Ajanta, as if here suddenly emancipated from the
dictum of the Jataka text, have given free reign to their perception,
emotion and imagination. |
An example of ceiling
decoration is from cave No.XVII and belongs to circa 6th century A.D.
The pink elephant is from the same decorative painting 'and can be seen
in detail. This striking elephant represents a fme delineation of living
flesh natural to that animal along with a dignified movement and linear
rhythm and can be termed, perhaps, as one of the finest works of art.
The paintings from Bagh caves in Madhya
Pradesh correspond to those paintings of Ajanta in cave No.I and II.
Stylistically both belong to the same form, but Bagh figures are more
tightly modelled, and are stronger in outline. They are more earthly and
human than those at Ajanta. Unfortunately, their condition is now such
that they can only be appreciated at the site.
The earliest Brahmanical paintings so far
known, are the fragments found in Badami caves, in cave No.III belonging
to circa 6th century A.D. The so called Siva and Parvati is found
somewhat well preserved. Though the technique follows that of Ajanta and
Bagh, the modelling is much more sensitive in texture and expression
and the outline soft and elastic.
The paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami
represent the classical tradition of the North and the Deccan at its
best. Sittannavasal and other centres of paintings show the extent of
its penetration in the South. The paintings of Sittannavasal are
intimately connected with Jain themes and symbology, but enjoy the same
norm and technique as that of Ajanta. The contours of these paintings
are firmly drawn dark on a light red ground. On the ceiling of the
Verandah is painted a large decorative scene of great beauty, a lotus
pool with birds, elephants, buffaloes and a young man plucking flowers.
|
The next series of
wall-painting to survive are at Ellora, a site of great importance and
sanctity. A number of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples were excavated
between the 8th and 10th centuries A.D. from the living rock. The most
impressive of these, the Kailashnath temple is a free standing structure
which is in fact a monolith. There are several fragments of painting on
the ceiling of the different parts of this temple and on the walls of
some associated Jain cave temple.
The composition of the paintings at Ellora is
measured out in rectangular panels with thick borders. They have thus
been conceived within the given limits of frames that hold the
paintings. The space, in the sense of Ajanta, therefore, does not exist
at Ellora. So far as the style is concerned, Ellora painting is a
departure from the classical norm of Ajanta paintings. Of course the
classical tradition of modelling of the mass and rounded soft outline as
well as the illusion of the coming forward from the depth is not
altogether ignored. But the most important characteristic features of
Ellora painting are the sharp twist of the head, painted angular bents
of the arms, the concave curve of the close limbs, the sharp projected
nose and the long drawn open eyes, which can very well be considered as
the medieval character of Indian paintings.
The flying figures from cave temple No.XXXII
at Ellora belonging to mid-ninth century A.D. are beautiful examples of
swift movement through clouds. Both the characteristics, the rounded
plasticity of Ajanta modelling of classical period on the faces and the
angular bends of the arms of medieval tendencies are well marked here.
It is perhaps a product of the transitional period.
|
The most important wall
paintings in South India are from Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. The dancing
figures from Rajarajeswara temples of Tanjore belonging to early 11th
century A.D. are beautiful examples of medieval paintings. The wide open
eyes of all the figures are a clear negation of Ajanta tradition of
half closed drooping eyes. But the figures are no less sensitive than
the Ajanta figures, they are full of movement and throbbing with
vitality.
Another example of a dancing girl from
Brihadeshwara temple of Tanjore belonging to the same period is a unique
representation of swift movement and twisted form. The back and the
hips of the figure are vividly and realistically shown with the left leg
firn on the base and right thrown in space. The face is shown in
profile with pointed nose and chin while the eye is wide open. The hands
are outstretched like a sharp line swinging in balance. The rapturous
figure of a dedicated temple dancer with vibrating contours is a true
embodiment of sophistication in art and presents a charming, endearing
and lovable feast to the eyes.
The last series of wall painting in India are
from Lepakshi temple near Hindupur belonging to 16th century A.D. The
paintings are pressed within broad friezes and illustrate Saivaite and
secular themes.
A scene with three standing women inspite of
their well built forms and contours has in this style become somewhat
stiff. The figures are shown in profile rather in an unusual fashion,
specially the treatment of the faces where the second eye is drawn
projecting horizontally in space. The colour scheme and the
ornamentation of these figures are very pleasing and prove the highly
sophisticated taste of Indian artists.
|
The Boar hunt from the same
temple, is also an example of two-dimensional painting which almost
becomes characteristic of late medieval paintings either on wall or on
palm leaf or paper. Thereafter a decline of Indian wall paintings began.
The art continued into 18th-19th century A.D. in a very limited scale.
During the period from 11th century A.D. onward, a new method of
expression in painting known as miniature on palm leaves and paper;
perhaps much easier and more economical had already begun.
Some of the wall paintings of this declining
period in the reign of Prince of Travancore in Kerala, in the palaces of
Jaipur in Rajasthan and in the Rangmahal of the Chamba palace in
Himachal Pradesh are worth mentioning. The Rangmahal paintings of Chamba
deserve a special note in this connection as the National Museum is in
possession of these early 19th century paintings in the original.
|
| TECHNIQUE-
It would be interesting and perhaps necessary
to discuss the technique and process of making Indian wall paintings
which has been discussed in a special chapter of the Vishnudharamotaram,
a Sanskrit text of the 5th/6th century A.D. The process of these
paintings appears to have been the same in all the early examples that
have survived with an only exception in the Rajarajeshwara temple at
Tanjore which is supposed to be done in a true fresco method over the
surface of the rock.
Most of the colours were locally available. Brushes were made up from the hair of animals, such as goat, camel, mongoose, etc.
The ground was coated with an exceedingly
thin layer of lime plaster over which paintings were drawn in water
colours. In true fresco method the paintings are done when the surface
wall is still wet so that the pigments go deep inside the wall surface.
Whereas the other method of painting which was followed in most of the
cases of Indian painting is known as tempora or fresco-secco. It is a
method of painting on the lime plastered surface which has been allowed
to dry first and then drenched with fresh lime water. On the surface
thus obtained the artist proceeded to sketch out his composition. This
first sketch was drawn by an experienced hand and subsequently corrected
in many places with a strong black or deep brown line when the final
drawing was added. After the painter had drawn out his first scheme in
red, he proceeded to apply on this a semi-transparent terraverte
monochrome, through which his outline could be seen. Over this
preliminary glaze the artist worked in his local colours. The principal
colours in use were red ochre, vivid red (vermilion), yellow ochre,
indigo blue, lapis lazuli, lamp black (Kajjal), chalk white, terraverte
and green.
|
