Rock Formation

Geological cycle includes many processes acting simultaneously. The most important of these begin with molten magma from within the earth forming into rock, then continue with rocks being broken down into soil, and that soil being converted back into rock. Rocks are classified according to their place in the geologic cycle. The three major categories are Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Types of Rocks and types of rock formations Igneous Rock: The geologic cycle begins with magma, a molten rock deep inside the earth. This magma cools as it moves upward toward the ground surface, forming igneous rocks. Classification of Igneous Rock: On the basis texture (size, shape and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock) and mode of occurance, Igneous rock is divided broadly into two types: Intrusive (also called plutonic rocks): form below the ground surface, where they cool slowly, Extrusive (also called volcanic rocks) arrive at the ground surface in a molten state, such as through volcanic eruption. This type of igneous rock cool very rapidly.

1. Igneous Rock formation: Hypabyssal Rock: Hypabyssal rocks are formed when consolidation of magma takes place very close to the earth’s surface in the form of smaller sheet like bodies (known as sills and dykes) that fill cracks inside other rocks. Some extrusive generally have finer grained, smoother surfaces. Some extrusive materials, such as volcanic ash, bypasses the rock stage and forms directly into sediment Common Igneous Rocks Some common igneous rocks include: Granite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It the most common and familiar igneous rocks. Granite contains primarily orthoclase feldspar and quartz, with some biotite and amphibole. It is mostly light in color with a white or pink tint according to the color of the feldspar. Engineering properties Granite have as low as 0.24 per cent. It as an excellent frost resistance. Because of the minerals composition and interlocking of crystals, granite is hard and abrasion resistant. The compressive strength of granite is on average 24,500 psi. it can be concluded that granite can be used to support any load of ordinary structures. Diorite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It is mainly composed of plagioclase feldspar (more than 50 %) and hornblends. However, in some varieties augite and biotite may be present. It is more abundant than syenites but less abundant than granite. Diorite has been used for crushed stone for monumental and decorative purposes than for structural purposes. Syenite: is grained igneous rocks composed essentially of potassium felspare (80-85 %). Biotite and hornblende are commonly present. Quartz is present in small amount. The general properties of syenites is similar to grainite. Because of the rarity of syenite, it is of little commercial use as structural material. Some other types of igneous rocks are: Rhyolite, Pumice (can be used as pozzolanic materials with cement), Dolerite, Basalt and Gabbro. Texture: Texture is size, shape and arrangment of mineral grains in a rock. Texture of rock can either of coarse-crystalline or it can be glassy or amorphus. The texture of the rock is governed by the cooling time of the magma. Crystallization is govened by slow cooling, however, glassy texture or amorphous form is the result of rapid cooling. Types of rock: Holocrystalline, Coarse grained, fine grained, cryptocrystalline and glassy (amorphus) Dike and sill Sill: A sill is igneous rock which very in thickness from a few centimeter to several hundred meters. The sill is parallel to the bedding of rock and may be horizontal, inclined or vertical depending upon the strata. Dike: A dike is vertical wall-like igneous body that cuts the bedding of the rock. The thickness of the dike may vary from a few centimeters to a hundred meter or more. 2. Sedimentary Rocks formation Sedimentary rock is formed by deposition and consolidation of mineral and organic material and from precipation of minerals from solution. The processes that form sedimentary rock occur at the surface of the earth and within bodies of water. Rock formed from sediments covers 70-80 % of the earth’s land area, and includes common types such as limestone, chalk, sandstone, conglomerate and shale. Mechanically formed: consisting of materials (gravels, sand, silt and clay) suspended in flowing water. The suspended materials are then deposited and consolidated. The mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are of three types: Rudaceous rocks which is the cementing together of boulders, for example, conglomerate. Arenaceous rocks for example sandstone, Argillaceous rocks which clay rocks for example shale Organically formed: Consisting of accumlated animals and plants remains. They are: Calcarious rocks, lime stone Carbonaceous rocks, coal Chemically formed: this type of rocks is formed by precipitation and accumulation of soluble constituents. These are Carbonate rocks, Limestone, dolomite, Sulphate rocks, Gypsum, Chloride rocks, salt Consolidation Consolidation is a process by which soft and loose sediments are converted into hard and firm rocks. Consolidation is of three types: Compaction and Dehydration: The squeezing out of water from the pores of the sediments and its changing to solid mass by cohesion between the particles and pressure from overlying rock is called compaction and dehydration. Cementation: Many coarse grained sediments are consolidated by cementation, which is the process of precipitation of some cementing materials, for example, silica, calcium carbonate, iron oxides and clay minerals. Crystallization: Chemically formed sedimentary rocks such as limestone, dolomites, gypsum etc are consolidated chiefly by the crystallization of their constituents. Structural Features of sedimentary rocks Structural features of sedimentary rocks are of great value in determining their origin. The main structures are as follows: Stratification: The deposition of sediments into layer or beds is called stratification. The thickness of a single bed may vary from a few centimeters to many meters. The stratification is formed due to the following. Difference in the kinds of materials deposited for example shale and lime stone Difference in the size of particles deposited for example coarse grained and fine grained stand stone beds Difference in the color of the material deposited for example light grey and dark grey layers of limestone Lamination: Thin bedding, less than one centimeter in thickness, are called lamination. It is usually fined grained sedimentary rocks like shales. Cross-bedding: It is also called current bedding or false bedding. Cross-bedding are the minor bedding or lamination which lie at an angle to the planes of general stratification. This structure is found in shallow water and wind formed deposites. Different types of sedimentary rocks Conglomerate: The pebbles and gravels on consolidation and cementation produce a rock known as conglomerate. Gravels are deposited for the most part by water. Water circulating through gravel deposits may precipitate out silica, calcium carbonate, or iron oxides, which act as cements binding the gravels together into conglomerates. Sandstones: Most sand is a water deposit. In arid regions, widespread sands have been laid down by wind action. Volcanic eruptions, glacial action, mechanical and chemical weathering, and organisms produce sands. The sand particles are deposited and then cemented together by materials like silica, calcite, iron oxide or clay. Sandstones may be siliceous sandstone that is the cementing materials is silica; it may be calcarious sandstone in which the cementing materials is calcium carbonate; ferruginous sandstone and argillaceous sandstone having iron oxide and clay as cementing materials The thoroughly cemented sandstone with quartz are termed as orthoquartzite. Argillaceous rocks: variously called mudstone, claystone, and shale (compacted or cemented) are among the most abundant of sedimentary rocks. It is a laminated fine grained sedimentary rock which is mainly composed of clay minerals and some silt-size grains of quartz. The claystones, because they are characteristically soft and weak are not suited to most construction purposes. The compacted shale lose strength when wet and are subject to plastic deformation. Under load they are subject to failure by flow. The cemented shales have a strength comparable to concrete but have a relatively high elasticity. Clay stones underlying the sites of heavy structures should be test in both wet and dry conditions. Clay stone has a limited use. It serves as a raw materials for the ceramic industry in some places and also used as raw materials for cement production. Carbonate rocks: The carbonate rocks are chiefly the products of marine or fresh water sedimentation. They are predominantly chemical sediments either formed by metabolic process of organism or precipitated inorgainically. Mineralogically, the carbonate rocks are comparatively simple. There are two main varieties; the limestone composed chiefly of the calcite, and the dolomite composed chiefly of dolomite. The carbonate rocks, particularly the limestones, have a very wide use in modern industry. The largest single use is as crushed stone. Limestone is one of the leading dimension stones being utilized both for internal and external work. Commercial lime is derived from the burning of limestone. 3. Metamorphic rock formation When the pre-existing rocks (sedimentary or igneous rock) are subjected to increased temperature, pressure and action of chemically active fluids, metamorphic rocks are formed. During metamorphism re-crystallization of mineral constituent takes place, as a result new minerals and new texture are produced. The metamorphic processes generally improve the engineering behavior of these rocks by increasing their hardness and strength. Nevertheless, some metamorphic rocks still can be problematic. Some metamorphic rocks are foliated , which means they have oriented grains similar to bedding plains in sedimentary rocks. These foliation is important because the shear strength is less for stresses acting parallel to the foliation. Types of Metamorphism Contact metamorphism is the name given to the changes that take place when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock. The changes that occur are greatest wherever the magma comes into contact with the rock because the temperature are highest at this boundary and decrease with distance from it. Around the igneous rock that forms from the cooling magma is a metamorphosed zone called a contact metamorphism aureole. Regional metamorphism is the name given to changes in great masses of rock over a wide area. Rock can be metamorphosed simply by being at great depths below the earth’s surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure caused by the immense weight of the rock layers above. Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic. Different Metamorphic rocks Marble: Marbles are metamorphosed carbonate rocks, derived from limestones and dolomites. The color of marble is variable, however, if the rock is pure calcite or dolomite marble it is generally white. Various impurities give rise to various shades. Green, pinks and buffs are common shades. The principal uses of marble are as cut stone for building and ornamental or decorative use. Slate: Slate is a dense metamorphic rock, with a strongly developed foliation. It is produced by the metamorphism of shale. The rock cleavage, or splitability is therefore excellent and is the outstanding characteristic of slates. The color of slate varies from iron-tinted reds through various shades of gray and green. The gray shades are due to carbonaceous matter, the greens to chloritic micas. The texture of slates is very fine or dense and foliation is good to perfect. Slate is used widely in the electrical industries as switchboards. Phyllite: Phyllite are strongly foliated metamorphic rocks similar to the slates but of slightly coarser texture. Phyllite have shiny luster due the presence of large amount of fine flakes of mica. Phyllite gradually pass into slates which are the first stage in the metaphorphism of shale. It has little use. It is too soft for crushed stone, and too weak for structural uses. Schist: Schist are foliated metamorphic rocks of medium to coarse texture. They are the product of the same processes of rock flow and recrystallization that produce slates and phyllite. The color of schist vary according to the mineralogical composition, as does also the perfection of cleavage. Schist has of little use. Because of the foliation, they are generally weak rocks. Some schists especially rich in muscovite are a source of scrap mica. Some common metamorphic transformation Original Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Products Clay Shale Slate, phyllite, schist Marl Limestone Marble Impure lime mud Calcareous shale, or impure lime stone Lime silicate rocks Sand Sandstone Quartzite Granite Granite gneiss Basalt Greenstone, chorite schist, hornblend schist

origin and evolution of the earth

There are various scientific theories of origin and evolution of the earth Nebular Hypothesis Planetesimal Hypothesis Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis Binary Star Hypothesis Gas Dust Cloud Hypothesis Nabular Hypothesis German philosopher, Kant and French mathematician, Laplace Earth, planets and sun originated from Nebula. Nebula was large cloud of gas and dust. It rotates slowly. Gradually it cooled and contracted and its speed increased. A gaseous ring was separated from nebula Later the ring cooled and took form of a planet On repetition of the process all other planets came into being The central region, nebula became sun.

Objections:

• Sun should have the greatest angular momentum because of its mass and situated in the center, however, it has only two percent of momentum of the solar system
• How the hot gaseous material condensed in to rings

Planetesimal Hypothesis

1. Chamberlin and Moulton proposed the theory in 1904
2. The sun existed before the formation of planets
3. A star came close to the sun.
4. Because of the gravitation pull of the star, small gaseous bodies were separated from the sun
5. These bodies on cooing became small planet's
6. During rotation the small planets collided and form planets

Objections:

• The angular momentum could not be produced by the passing star.
• The theory failed to explain how the planetesimals had become one planet

Gaseous Tidal Theory

1. Jeans and Jeffrey proposed the theory in 1925
2. Large star came near the sun. Due to gravitational pull a gaseous tide was raised on the surface of the sun.
3. As the star came nearer, the tide increased in size.
4. Gaseous tide detached when star move away.
5. The shape of the tide was like spindle.
6. It broke into pieces-forming nine planets of the solar system

What are the differences between a national park, a wildlife sanctuary, and a biosphere reserve?

http://www.quora.com/Nature-Conservation/What-are-the-differences-between-a-national-park-a-wildlife-sanctuary-and-a-biosphere-reserve

Democracy vs. Republic

The key difference between a democracy and a republic lies in the limits placed on government by the law, which has implications for minority rights. Both forms of government tend to use arepresentational system where citizens vote to elect politicians to represent their interests and form the government. However, in a republic, a constitution or charter of rights protects certain inalienable rights that cannot be taken away by the government, even if it has been elected by a majority of voters. In a "pure democracy," the majority is not restrained in this way and can impose its will on the minority.

Most modern nations are democratic republics with a constitution, which can be amended by a popularly elected government.

Comparison chart

Democracy	Republic
Definition
is ruled by the omnipotent majority. In a Democracy, an individual, and any group of individuals composing any minority, have no protection against the unlimited power of the majority. It is a case of Majority-over-Man.	A republic is a representative democracy with a written Constitution of basic rights that protect the minority from being completely unrepresented or overridden by the majority.
Constraints on the government
No; the majority can impose its will on the minority	Yes; the majority cannot take away certain inalienable rights
Philosophy
All eligible citizens get equal say in decisions	All eligible citizens get equal say in decisions with protection of unalienable rights to individuals.
Famous Examples
Classical Greece, Rome	United States Of America
Sovereignty is held by
the whole population (as a group)	the people (individuals)
Common confusion in the USA
People commonly confuse direct democracy with representative democracy. The US officially has a representative style, though many have suggested the US is closer to an oligarchy or plutocracy.	The US is actually a Republic. It is governed by rule of law. The elected are bound by oath to the written governing limits (ie constitution) yet vote "together" and create laws to address concerns of the represented in a democratic way

JPC PAC Difference

JPC stands for Joint Parliamentary Commission which is appointed by the government in accordance with the opposition to investigate any case of national importance. It is put to use only when the case involves very high profile government officials who are out of the reach of the investigating agencies. It consists of the members of parliament from the ruling side as well as the opposition.

PAC stands for Public Accounts Committee which is an independent body whose head is usually a member of the opposition. The primary function of this body is to assess the financial irregularities in the functioning of the government organisations. The powers of this committee are up to such an extent that it can question even the prime minister,if the need arises

शिक्षा पद्धति का वादा है, वह मुझे बेहतर इंसान बना रही है!

उधारी 

जाते-जाते तुमने,
पीले बादल के कवर वाली किताब में
दबा के जो नया पता दिया था-
उसमें रहती हो क्या?

कुछ सौ रूपये सख्त ज़रूरी हैं,
पुराने इश्क़ के खातिर मिलेंगे?

या हमारा रिश्ता
दो कोढ़ी की उधारी लायक
तक भी न बन सका था?

---*---

अप्रैज़ल (Performance Appraisal )

नस्लभेद बहुत है यहां
गोरी गायों के मंत्री बन गए
काली भैंसे किसी ने न पूछी!

मैं न कहता था,
अप्रैज़ल तुम्हें ही मिलेगा जानेमन

दूध मेरा कोई कितना भी दुहे!

---*---

तुम्हारा चेहरा

छत से दिखता है सूरज
साइकल पे एक बूढ़ा
सड़क पे झड़े पत्ते
मोटे इवनिंग वॉकर्स
और बादलों में तुम्हारा चेहरा.

---*---

शिक्षा पद्धति

बचपन में
किसी को मिले मुझसे कम मार्क्स
किसी को मिले मुझसे ज्यादा.

जिन्हें कम मिले
उन्हें मैंने हीनभावना से देखा,
जिन्हें ज्यादा मिले
मैं उनसे जलने लगा.

शिक्षा पद्धति का वादा है,
वह मुझे बेहतर इंसान बना रही है! 

---*---

चाँद 

रात के शीशे में उजाले का रिफ्लेक्शन
हम भी इसके नीचे, तुम भी तकते इसे
हाय! ये चाँद क्या क्या करता है!!

अपोलो-13 को खूबसूरत न लगा होगा,
जितना इधर से लगता है.

---*---

सुखन 

क़ासिद लौट जाते हैं पते पूछते

न गलियां पता न मेरा पता है.
बैरंग खतों में रंग जो उड़ेले थे
बोसों की सुखन लबों को याद है!

जादू से कोख भर देते हैं

ओट में छुप जाओ की चुम्बन लेना यहां वर्जित है
हाँ, हाँ पेशाब कर लो, सड़क आदमी के बाप की है
शुक्र मनाओ आप भारत में हैं.
उफ़! औरतें ये पर्दा भी नहीं करतीं
ये हैं संस्कार आज के
मादर##, बेन## पश्चिमी संस्कृति का असर है!
हटो की लुंगी पहिन लूँ अब
कच्छे में बहुत क़स्बा नाप लिया.

मेरे क़स्बे के यहां से भी
एक हाइवे निकलना चाहिए.
हमारी औरतें तो कम से कम नित्यक्रिया
आराम से कर सकें!
रहने दो, रेल निकलवा दो
पटरियां काम आएंगी.

गौ-हत्यारी है वो कौम,
ये नहीं सहेगा हिन्दू.
अबे हटा सड़क से वो गाय
मार दो-चार लट्ठ,
किसने साली को यहां छोड़ दिया?

अब क्या इतने भी बुरे दिन हैं कि
रात भर बैठ मानस पढ़ेंगे?
कैसी हिंदी लिखी तुलसी ने,
आधी बात समझ नहीं आती.
सुनो, राम मंदिर वहीं बनेगा
रामजन्म भूमि है वो,
ए. सी. में बैठ हमारे संत यही कह रहे हैं.
हमारे पीर/ संत देवता होते हैं... जादू से कोख भर देते हैं.
बलात्कारी तो एक-दो निकले बस.

टुकड़े

इस शहर में तेरी आत्मा बसती है
तू नुक्कड़, चौराहे हंसती दिखती है.
-*-

हौसलों की बारिश में कोई कमी नहीं
बाप के काँधे हैं, माँ की दुआयें हैं.
-*-

कौन कहता है रौशनी अच्छी लगती है,
तेरे बगैर सहर कोहरे में डूबी लगती है.
-*-

मेरे मुक़द्दर मुझसे बस एक वफ़ा करना,
उस बेवफा को मुकम्मल घर अदा करना.
-*-

मियाँ इस तरह से अजीबो-गरीब शे'र न पढ़ा करो
ग़ालिब, फैज़ की मिलकियत पे वाज़िब हक़ अदा करो.
-*-

मैं वारिस हूँ फैज़ का मुझे लूटोगे क्या,
मेरा हर नगमा तुम्हारी जुबाँ पे बिखर जायेगा.
-*-

तुम्हारे फेंके पत्थरों का शुक्रिया,
मैंने सीढ़िया बनाई औ' आसमां छू लिया.
-*-

प्यास लगे तो तुम मेरा वजूद पी लेना,
माँ ने कहा था पानी साफ़ पीना चाहिए.

"Why do we even try? When the barriers are so high, and the odds are so low? Why don't we just pack it in and go home? It'd be so, so much easier...

It's because in the end, there's no glory in easy. No one remembers easy. They remember the blood, and the bones, and long, agonizing fight to the top. And that, is how you become legendary" - Grey's Anatomy, Season 11, Episode 14. 

मुनि श्री क्षमासागर जी की रचनाएँ

मुनि श्री क्षमासागर जी एक प्रसिद्ध दिगंबर जैन संत थे, जो हाल ही में ब्रह्मलीन हुए हैं. उच्च शिक्षित, भूगर्भ विज्ञान में एम. टेक. साधु जो ताउम्र शिक्षा को बढ़ावा देते रहे और बच्चों को उच्च शिक्षा के लिए प्रोत्साहित करते रहे. वे सिर्फ एक बड़े विद्वान ही नहीं प्रखर वक्ता और एक बहुत अच्छे कवि भी थे. उनकी कुछ रचनाएँ आप यहां भी पढ़ सकते हैं. कुछ और रचनाएँ...